Beaulieu and Jimenz-Gomez (2022) introduce a framework for cultural responsiveness

Beaulieu and Jimenz-Gomez (2022) introduce a framework for cultural responsiveness in the field of applied behavior analysis. Briefly describe the research and practice recommendations made in this article, highlighting how they could be applicable to someone working in the field. Culture has a substantial impact on a wide range of behaviors related to behavioral research and services such as rapport building, preferences for specific targets and treatments, communication, and even the quality of health care. The need for professionals in the field of applied behavior analysis (ABA) to incorporate culturally responsive practices is underscored by the current and projected increase in diversity in the United States. Further, the update to the Ethics Code (BACB, 2020) supports addressing diversity in behavior analytic practice. Self-assessment of one’s values, biases, and culture are a critical step in delivering culturally responsive services. The purpose of this paper is three-fold: a) to introduce a framework for cultural responsiveness in ABA, b) to showcase research and practice recommendations from within and outside the field of ABA in the area of self-assessment, and c) to inspire research in self-assessment to support cultural responsiveness in ABA. Key words: cultural awareness, cultural competence, cultural humility, cultural responsiveness, culture, diversity, ethics The culture to which a person belongs can have profound impacts on the health care they receive due to provider biases and discriminatory systems that support those who belong to particular groups and harm those who do not (Constantino et al., 2020; Greenwood et al., 2020; Nelson, 2002). For instance, racial and ethnic minoritized groups experience lower quality health care even when insurance status and income are controlled (Nelson, 2002), which can have serious implications on mortality (Greenwood et al., 2020). Furthermore, Black children experience racial disparities in timing of diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder and may be more likely to be misclassified with intellectual disability (Constantino et al., 2020). In addition, Black and Latino children are less likely to be diagnosed with ADHD (Coker et al., 2016; Moody, 2016) and disproportionately more likely to experience school suspensions and expulsions than White1 children (Losen & Skiba, 2010; Smith & Harper, 2015). We have no conflict of interest to report. Given the topic, the authors consider it important to reveal some of the cultural identities that shape their perspective, while acknowledging many other undisclosed cultural variables also have impacted their learning history. LB (she/her) is a nonreligious White female and was born and raised in the northeast and southeast United States. CJG (she/her) was born and raised in Venezuela, is a speaker of English as a second language, currently residing in the United States, and has been in the field of behavior analysis for 20 years. We thank Dr. Tyra Sellers and the anonymous reviewers for their tremendously helpful comments on an earlier version of this manuscript. Address correspondence to: Lauren Beaulieu, Newton Public Schools, 100 Walnut St, Newton, MA 02460. Email: b..l@newton.k12.ma.us or Corina JimenezGomez, Auburn University, Department of Psychological Sciences, 226 Thach Hall, Auburn, AL 36849-5214. Email: c..z@auburn.edu doi: 10.1002/jaba.907 1 We capitalize all races—including White—in alignment with several notable scholars and sources who assert using a lowercase “w” allows White individuals to continue to perpetuate the invisibility of Whiteness and its privileges (see Ewing, 2020; Mack & Palfrey, 2020; NABJ, 2020; Painter, 2020). However, we recognize there is not consensus with respect to the capitalization of White when referring to race (Daniszewski, 2020). Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 2022, 55, 337-356 NUMBER 2 (SPRING) © 2022 Society for the Experimental Analysis of Behavior (SEAB). 337 The recent update to the Ethics Code for Behavior Analysts by the Behavior Analyst Certification Board® (BACB®, 2020) supports addressing diversity in behavior analytic practice and requires that certificants obtain training in the area of cultural diversity. This addition begins to address a long-standing need of researchers and practitioners of applied behavior analysis (ABA) to better understand the impact of culture on behavior analytic research and practice, considering the disparaging evidence of biased and discriminatory treatments in related disciplines. Relatedly, the 2018 U.S. Census data projected that children from minoritized groups (i.e., groups other than non-Hispanic White) would account for more than 50% of the child population by the year 2020 and this trend is already observed with children under 15 (Frey, 2019; Vespa et al., 2018). In addition, the U.S. Census data predict that by 2028 the foreign-born share of the population will reach a historic high since the year 1850, and by 2030, international migration is expected to be the primary source of population growth in the U.S. (Frey, 2019; Vespa et al., 2018). Frey highlights how these data support the need for organizations that focus on children to proactively prepare for more diverse populations. Diversity relates to various demographic variables including a person’s race, ethnicity, age, generation, education, socioeconomic status, religion or spiritual beliefs, language, nationality, geographic location, disability, gender identity, and sexual orientation. These demographic variables do not operate on one’s identity and behavior independently; instead, it is the interaction of various social categorizations (e.g., race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, gender identity) that impacts identity and behavior (Crenshaw, 1991). This interaction of various demographic variables creating unique experiences of privilege and oppression has been termed intersectionality (Crenshaw, 1991). It is futile to attempt to become an expert in any particular demographic variable as an individual’s behavior and identity are a product of the combination of all their cultural variables. It is important to distinguish between demographic variables and culture. Demographic variables, sometimes termed cultural variables, refer to specific intersecting aspects of one’s identity. Culture is the collective beliefs, values, and practices of a group of individuals that share similar demographic variables (e.g., religion, race, ethnicity). When referring to culture, Skinner (1953) wrote What a man eats and drinks and how he does so, what sorts of sexual behavior he engages in, how he builds a house or draws a picture or rows a boat, what subjects he talks about or remains silent about, what music he makes, what kinds of personal relationships he enters into and what kinds he avoids—all depend in part upon the practices of the group of which he is a member. (p. 415) In other words, culture impacts our communication, daily routines, habits, greetings, parenting styles, concepts, values, beliefs, and even respondent behavior (e.g., conditioned reflexes). A community that shares similar demographic variables establishes which behaviors will be differentially reinforced, and labeled as appropriate, and which will not. Although Skinner (1953) discussed the various impacts of culture on behavior, he did not describe methods for culturally responsive service delivery. With respect to service delivery, culture impacts behaviors related to rapport building, preferences for specific targets and treatments, treatment acceptance, communication, and the way we interact with those deemed as authority figures, which can affect assessment and treatment procedures (Betancourt et al., 2016; Kodjo, 2009; Lo & Fung, 2003; Morris et al., 1998; Parette & 338 Lauren Beaulieu and Corina Jimenez-Gomez 19383703, 2022, 2, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jaba.907 by Tcs Education System, Wiley Online Library on [15/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Huer, 2002; Vandenberghe, 2008). For instance, gestures have different meanings depending on culture, which can impact communication between participant and researcher or client and practitioner (Parette & Huer, 2002). Head nodding may indicate agreement in one culture and indicate acknowledgement in another culture. Therefore, an individual from a culture where a head nod implies agreement may assume the other person agrees with them when in fact the individual was simply indicating they heard the other person. In addition, researchers have found that variables such as socioeconomic status impact parenting styles and levels of monitoring (Li et al., 2000). Culture also affects how we perceive other people’s social behavior, which makes it is necessary to recognize cultural differences in the interpretation of social behaviors to develop effective interracial communication (Tanaka-Matsumi & Higginbotham, 1996). For example, Caldwell-Colbert and Jenkins (1982) found that White individuals may perceive the same pattern of social behaviors as assertive when emitted by other White individuals but as aggressive when emitted by Black individuals. The pattern of behavior the authors referred to involved expressing feelings and asking questions. Similarly, Hrop and Rakos (1985) found both White individuals and Black individuals experienced discomfort with assertions by individuals of the other race. Importantly for the field of ABA and its reliance on science, culture impacts the value individuals place on Western science (Kodjo, 2009; Parette & Huer, 2002), which directly relates to how readily one accepts the benefit of evidence-based treatment. If a client or caregiver does not value Western science, the practitioner may find it difficult to gain the caregiver’s approval of clinical programming. Similarly, individuals who do not value Western science may be less likely to participate in research, which can skew the findings of applied research and impact the generality of findings. These are just a few examples of the impact of culture on behavior to emphasize the need to prioritize cultural variables in research and practice in ABA. There is much to learn about how culture impacts behavior analytic services and how we can best serve clients. The notion of “color and cultural blindness” (Cross et al., 1989) (i.e., ignoring or minimizing the impact of cultural variables) not only undermines the emphasis of individualization critical to the field of ABA, but it leads to the denial, minimization, and persistence of racism (Neville et al., 2016) and will continue to perpetuate ethnocentrism and discriminatory behaviors from researchers and practitioners. Defining Key Diversity Terms Cultural competence has received much attention in other fields, including medicine, psychology, and social work (e.g., Betancourt, 2006; Danso, 2016; Sue, Sue et al., 2019; Sue et al., 1982). In this paper, we use several terms and phrases related to diversity that have been the subject of some debate. See Table 1 for definitions of key diversity terms. From a behavioral perspective, cultural humility involves understanding that one’s view of the world is impacted by one’s individual learning history and that different environmental and learning histories impact the behavior of others. Further, using a posture of cultural humility requires individuals to self-monitor private verbal behavior and rules regarding the labels right and wrong, while considering other’s learning histories when delivering behavior services. The debate to replace the phrase cultural competence with cultural humility has spanned decades and disciplines (e.g., Betancourt, 2006; Danso, 2016; Dean, 2001; Fisher-Borne et al., 2015; Greene-Moton & Minkler, 2020; Isaacson, 2014; Johnson & Munch, 2009; Kirmayer, 2012; Tervalon & MurrayGarcia, 1998) and entered the field of ABA with Wright’s (2019) paper. The three most common criticisms of cultural competence are Self-assessment 339 19383703, 2022, 2, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jaba.907 by Tcs Education System, Wiley Online Library on [15/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License that the phrase: (1) suggests a finite end point, as opposed to a life-long venture; (2) involves merely acquiring knowledge of different groups, which supports stereotypes and ignores changes in cultures across time and intersectionality; and (3) only considers race while ignoring other cultural variables (Fisher-Borne et al., 2015; Isaacson, 2014; Johnson & Munch, 2009; Kirmayer, 2012; Tervalon & MurrayGarcia, 1998; Wright, 2019). However, these criticisms do not apply to all definitions of cultural competence (Sue & Torino, 2005; Sue, Sue et al., 2019). Boyle and Springer (2001) suggest there are hundreds of definitions of cultural competence. The definition of cultural competence depicted in Table 1 is consistent with the three dimensions (awareness, knowledge, and skills) of cultural competence (Sue et al., 1982; Sue, Sue et al., 2019). Sue is a prolific scholar in the area of multicultural psychology and uses the phrase cultural competence. The common criticisms do not pertain to this particular definition. Further, several authors have pointed out that cultural competence includes a posture of cultural humility (Greene-Moton & Minkler, 2020; Sue, Sue et al., 2019). Nonetheless, considering the contention of the phrase cultural competence and how the specific word “competence” may invoke various meanings to different people both within and outside of the field of ABA, it may be best to use other terminology. For example, in the new revision of the BACB ethics code, the phrase culturally responsive is used repeatedly. The phrase culturally responsive was coined by Gay (2000) and is most commonly encountered in the literature on education. Nevertheless, if the field of ABA adopts the phrase culturally responsive, it may still be wise to Table 1 Definitions of Key Diversity Terms Term Definition Citation Cultural Competence “…a lifelong process in which one works to develop the ability to engage in actions or create conditions that maximize the optimal development of client and client systems. Multicultural counseling competence is aspirational and consists of counselors acquiring awareness, knowledge, and skills needed to function effectively in a pluralistic democratic society (ability to communicate, interact, negotiate, and intervene on behalf of clients from diverse backgrounds), and on organizational/ societal level, advocating effectively to develop new theories, practices, policies, and organizational structures that are more responsive to all groups.” Sue and Torino (2005, p. 8) Cultural Humility Cultural humility is a life-long process that requires continual self-reflection to produce a dynamic partnership that reduces power imbalances between clinician and client and requires respect for and lack of superiority toward another’s cultural background Tervalon & Murray-Garcia, 1998 Cultural Responsiveness “…using the cultural characteristics, experiences, and perspectives of ethnically diverse students as conduits for teaching them more effectively.” Gay (2002, p. 106) 340 Lauren Beaulieu and Corina Jimenez-Gomez 19383703, 2022, 2, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jaba.907 by Tcs Education System, Wiley Online Library on [15/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License consider the extensive literature outside our field on research on cultural competence. Therefore, although we use the phrase culturally responsive throughout this paper, we incorporate the work of scholars in the area of cultural competence, and when describing their work, we use the terms depicted in their papers. In addition, we stress the critical need for practitioners and researchers to use a posture of cultural humility in their work. We urge others who are developing their knowledge in this area to pay particular attention to how terms and phrases are defined and to review literature in which the phrase cultural competence is used. Cultural Competence as a Framework for Cultural Responsiveness Sue and colleagues (Sue et al., 1982; Sue et al., 1999; Sue, Sue et al., 2019) describe the three dimensions of cultural competence as: a) awareness, b) knowledge, and c) skills. We propose using these three dimensions of cultural competence to frame discussions on culturally responsive behavior analytic services. We frame our discussions around these dimensions as they provide a thorough description of actionable items related to becoming more culturally responsive. Awareness The first dimension, awareness, refers to being able to discriminate and tact one’s own culture and biases, and the resulting impact on service delivery. Awareness arises from selfassessment and reflection on (a) our own histories of reinforcement and the groups to which we belong, (b) the cultural variables that impact our behaviors, and (c) the differences between ourselves and others on these variables. Awareness also requires one to discriminate that behavior may differ depending on a range of social stimuli (e.g., compliance with a request may differ depending on who delivers the directive). Knowledge The knowledge dimension refers to acquiring specific information about the groups with whom one works. More specifically, this refers to seeking opportunities to learn how individuals with different cultural variables experience environmental stimuli based on their own learning histories. The knowledge dimension has received the most criticism because learning about groups may lead to stereotypes and prejudice; however, Tervalon and MurrayGarcia (1998), the authors who introduced the term cultural humility, discuss how acquiring knowledge about groups is critical. According to Tervalon and Murray-Garcia, the use of a posture of cultural humility and learning culture-specific information from the client can mitigate the development of stereotypes. For example, let us consider a practitioner who accepts a 7-year-old client who is currently experiencing poverty. The knowledge dimension encourages the practitioner to learn about issues and concerns of those experiencing poverty. For example, children experiencing poverty disproportionately experience food insecurity, homelessness, and an increased likelihood of experiencing four or more adverse childhood experiences (ACEs; types of trauma such as abuse, neglect, domestic violence; Maguire-Jack et al., 2021). Using a posture of cultural humility requires one to learn from the individual and understand that even though a group of people disproportionately experience a specific issue, it does not mean everyone in the group experiences the issue. Prepared with the knowledge that children are more likely to experience four or more ACEs, practitioners could consider the tenets of trauma-informed care (e.g., respecting autonomy, assent and consent to procedure, providing choices, building skills; for a more in-depth discussion of trauma-informed care in ABA, see Rajaraman et al., 2022). With this knowledge (i.e., learning of facts), a newly developed awareness of issues disproportionately Self-assessment 341 19383703, 2022, 2, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jaba.907 by Tcs Education System, Wiley Online Library on [15/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License impacting members of this group may aid the practitioner in developing more culturally responsive procedures when a particular procedure is not working as planned or emotional responses appear to be “out of nowhere.” Knowledge of the individual’s life in poverty may help lead the practitioner to more compassionately identify potential setting events that may be impacting the child (e.g., coming to school hungry) and treatments to potentially avoid (e.g., using food as a reinforcer for children experiencing food insecurity). This is but one particular example of how the knowledge dimension can potentially benefit the services provided when considered in conjunction with the other dimensions of cultural responsiveness, and this should be performed across cultural variables to the extent possible, as not all cultural variables will be known or disclosed. Skills The skills dimension refers to specific observable skills related to culturally responsive care, such as utilizing the information about a client’s culture to inform the approach to clinical care. Table 2 is adapted from Sue et al. (1982) and provides an in-depth description of each of these dimensions. The original table proposed by Sue et al. was developed for counseling therapists; therefore, we added additional items and modified others as they relate to the work of behavior analysts. Given the limited evidence-based practice in the area of cultural responsiveness in ABA, this paper aims to: a) to introduce a framework for cultural responsiveness in ABA, b) to showcase research and practice recommendations from within and outside the field of ABA in the area of self-assessment, and c) to inspire research in self-assessment to support cultural responsiveness in ABA. We anchor our discussion of cultural responsiveness in ABA to the three dimensions of cultural competence outlined in Sue et al. (1982); Sue, Sue et al., (2019): awareness, knowledge, and skills. We focus on research questions relevant to assessing the effects of self-assessment, identifying evidencebased methods to engage in self-assessment, and identifying ways to reduce one’s biases. Some of the research questions we propose may seem rudimentary; however, as a field that is centered on empirically validated procedures, these research questions are a necessary starting place to better understand the role of culture on behavior analytic services. Considering the demographics of ABA practitioners are predominantly White females (Behavior Analyst Certification Board, n.d), it is predominantly White behavior analysts who are conducting research, serving culturally diverse clients, and training future behavior analysts. Therefore, it is imperative that all individuals involved in research and practice, including those who do not identify as members of minoritized groups, engage in practices that foster cultural responsiveness. Cultural responsiveness should not be considered as an afterthought or a side area of ABA; instead, behavior analytic research and practice should always be culturally responsive. In other words, when faculty teach students about various ABA topics and when presenters conduct trainings on ABA topics, it should be through the lens of being culturally responsive to clients and participants. This is not to say that we are all prepared to do so immediately. On the contrary, members of our profession need continual training in the area of cultural responsiveness. It is critical to note that the authors of this paper are not experts in the area of culturally responsive services. Instead, the authors of this paper have recognized the importance of culturally responsive services, and set out to learn from within and outside the field of ABA. This paper is a product of their ongoing learning in this area. This paper is not a comprehensive review paper; instead, it highlights important works within and outside the field of ABA. This paper is not the 342 Lauren Beaulieu and Corina Jimenez-Gomez 19383703, 2022, 2, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jaba.907 by Tcs Education System, Wiley Online Library on [15/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License primary or sole resource for learning about culturally responsive services as the literature in this area is immense. It is critical to consider how the authors’ own cultural variables impact their selection and inclusion of particular research questions and prior research; therefore, the research areas in this paper are not exhaustive and we encourage others to identify other avenues of needed research. Training and understanding in this area are ongoing and the journey to providing the most culturally responsive services is a lifelong commitment. This paper does not describe culturally responsive behavior analytic practices, but we encourage readers to see Jimenez-Gomez and Beaulieu (accepted) for an in-depth discussion of cultural responsiveness in behavior assessment and treatment. In Jimenez-Gomez and Beaulieu (accepted), we discuss ways to incorporate the awareness, knowledge, and skills dimensions into more culturally responsive practices. Here, we focus on a starting point for culturally responsive applied behavior analytic services, which is the development of the awareness dimension through self-assessment. Table 2 Dimensions of Culturally Responsive Behavior Analytic Services Awareness • Self-assess one’s culture; discriminate and tact cultural variables that impact behavior • Respect and appreciate differences; use a posture of cultural humility with individuals from cultural backgrounds different than own • Discriminate one’s biased behaviors and their impact on services, including both clients and the supervision of trainees • Assess limits of scope of competence regarding cultural diversity and access additional support or provide referrals as needed Knowledge • Tact past and current treatment of minoritized groups with respect to sociopolitical systems in the country/region one lives • Acquire specific knowledge about the cultural group with which one works • Discriminate and tact barriers that prevent people from minoritized groups use of behavioral services • Identify possibly contraindicated treatments due to cultural variables and conduct risk assessments • Identify how behaviors related to ethical dilemmas and decision-making vary across cultures • Discriminate and tact the role of cultural variables in the supervision and training of trainees • Tact differences in defining targets, preferences for treatments, and treatment effects across cultures Skills • Self-monitor relationships with clients and caregivers and prevent and disrupt biases • Respond effectively to feedback on mistakes one emits related to cultural differences • Practice self-compassion with oneself when confronted with challenges during the life-long learning process and following the emission of mistakes regarding cultural differences • Respond to cultural cues and communicate effectively with all forms of verbal behavior (vocal and gesture) • Deliver culturally responsive interventions to clients as needed • Engage in a variety of rapport building behaviors • Adapt treatments based on cultural variables • Ask open-ended questions and actively listen to caregiver concerns • Collaborate with caregivers on treatment goals and treatment selection • Offer choices of treatment components • Conduct risk assessments if using potentially contraindicated treatments and comprehensive monitoring plan • Utilize a decision-making model and understand the context related to cultural variables when making ethical decisions • Seek and incorporate feedback from others to improve future performance • Conduct social validity assessments throughout the assessment and treatment process Note. Adapted from Sue et al. (1982, p. 49). Self-assessment 343 19383703, 2022, 2, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jaba.907 by Tcs Education System, Wiley Online Library on [15/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Self-Assessment of One’s Own Cultural Background Self-assessment of one’s culture, beliefs, attitudes, and biases is a necessary first step to becoming more culturally responsive and may facilitate a posture of cultural humility (Fong et al., 2016; Sue et al., 1982; Sue et al., 1999; Sue, Sue et al., 2019). Self-assessment refers to the practice of systematically evaluating the cultural variables that have shaped one’s own behavior patterns and the manner in which these cultural variables impact behavior and interactions with others. Self-assessment is critical for identifying our own culture and biased behaviors, to identify how behaviors associated with our cultural variables impact the services we provide, and ultimately to identify how to promote more culturally responsive services. In addition, self-assessing one’s biases and ability to address the needs of diverse clients directly aligns with the Ethics Code for Behavior Analysts (codes 1.07 & 1.10; BACB, 2020, p. 9). Engaging in behaviors to enhance cultural awareness is an antecedent strategy to promote culturally responsive behaviors. Self-assessment involves self-discriminating histories of reinforcement and punishment sustained by the groups to which one belongs (e.g., race, ethnicity, religion, age, gender identity) and tacting how those histories impact one’s own behavior and the services one provides. Beliefs, stereotypes, and prejudices could be categorized as verbal behavior and more specifically as poorly specified rule statements that impact behaviors evoked in the presence of people with particular cultural variables (Glenn, 1987; Glenn, 1989). These rule statements may serve as an establishing operation for prejudicial treatment of those who belong to a particular group and may be developed through both observational learning and direct contingencies (Glenn, 1989). With respect to observational learning, the members of the cultural group may model the rule statement aloud or they may be viewed through media (e.g., observation of behaviors associated with people who belong to a particular group via television). Palmer (1996) discusses how achieving parity (i.e., recognition that one has conformed to others’ behaviors) may reinforce some types of conformity while nonconformity may be punished via social consequences (e.g., glaring, silence, shaming). Palmer discusses this concept primarily in relation to verbal behavior; however, he mentions the implications of parity as a reinforcer for other behaviors as well. For example, one strategy to optimize behavior in novel situations is to imitate the behavior of elders without the need for the behavior to be directly reinforced by members of the group; instead, imitation of others’ behavior is automatically reinforced via parity (Palmer, 1996). With respect to direct social contingencies, behaviors related to these rule statements may be reinforced by members of the same group with praise or other forms of attention. Self-assessment may help us identify our own rules (i.e., stereotypes and prejudices) about groups and particular people, which may assist us in identifying and disrupting biased behaviors and microaggressions towards individuals from different groups. In 1970, Pierce coined the term microaggression (Williams, 2020), which has been expanded by others (Sue et al., 2007; Williams et al., 2021). Sue et al. (2007, p. 271) defines microaggressions as “brief and commonplace daily verbal, behavioral, or environmental indignities, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative racial slights and insults toward people of color”. Often the individual emitting microaggressions will report being unaware of the harm they do. Microaggressions can be verbal (e.g., asking an Asian American person where they are really from; Sue et al., 2007, p. 276; interrupting a female Latina colleague during a meeting) or nonverbal (e.g., a White person waiting to take the next elevator because they see a person of color on the current elevator, Sue et al., 2007, 344 Lauren Beaulieu and Corina Jimenez-Gomez 19383703, 2022, 2, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jaba.907

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